This is a list of martial arts articles, broken down by region and style.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 African martial arts
o 1.1 Nigeria
o 1.2 South Africa
o 1.3 Sudan
o 1.4 Togo
o 1.5 Other African martial arts
* 2 Asian martial arts
o 2.1 Borneo
o 2.2 Burmese martial arts
o 2.3 Cambodia
o 2.4 Chinese martial arts (中國武術)
+ 2.4.1 Modern styles
o 2.5 Filipino martial arts (Philippines)
o 2.6 Indian martial arts
o 2.7 Indonesia
o 2.8 Japanese martial arts (日本武芸)
+ 2.8.1 Okinawa
o 2.9 Korean martial arts (한국무술/韓國武術)
o 2.10 Laos
o 2.11 Malaysia
o 2.12 Mongolia
o 2.13 Sri Lanka
o 2.14 Thailand
o 2.15 Tibet
o 2.16 Vietnamese martial arts (Võ Thuật Việt Nam)
* 3 European martial arts
o 3.1 General
o 3.2 Britain
o 3.3 Denmark
o 3.4 Finland
o 3.5 France
o 3.6 Germany
o 3.7 Greece
o 3.8 Ireland
o 3.9 Italy
o 3.10 Norway
o 3.11 Poland
o 3.12 Portugal
o 3.13 Russia
o 3.14 Scotland
o 3.15 Serbia
o 3.16 Spain
o 3.17 Sweden
o 3.18 Switzerland
* 4 Middle Eastern Martial Arts
o 4.1 Egypt
o 4.2 Iran
o 4.3 Israel
o 4.4 Turkey
o 4.5 Uzbekistan
* 5 North American and Caribbean martial arts
o 5.1 Haiti
o 5.2 USA
* 6 Oceanian martial arts
o 6.1 Hawaii
o 6.2 New Zealand
* 7 South American martial arts
o 7.1 Bolivia
o 7.2 Brazil
o 7.3 Peru
* 8 See also
[edit] African martial arts
[edit] Nigeria
* Dambe (Hausa Boxing)
[edit] South Africa
* Nguni stick fighting
* Rough and Tumble
[edit] Sudan
* Nuba fighting
[edit] Togo
* Evala wrestling
[edit] Other African martial arts
* Canarian wrestling
[edit] Asian martial arts
[edit] Borneo
* Borneo Silat
[edit] Burmese martial arts
* Bando
* Banshay
* Lethwei
* Naban
[edit] Cambodia
* Bokator
* Khmer Boxing
* Khmer Traditional Wrestling
[edit] Chinese martial arts (中國武術)
Main article: List of Chinese martial arts
* Bafaquan (八法拳) - Eight Methods
* Baguazhang (八卦掌 Pa Kua Chang) - Eight-Trigrams Palm
* Bajiquan (八極拳) - Eight Extremes Fist
* Bak Mei (白眉拳) - White Eyebrow
* Black Tiger Kung Fu (黑虎拳)
* Chaquan (查拳) - Cha Fist
* Chow Gar Southern Praying Mantis
* Choy Gar(蔡家)
* Choy Lay Fut (蔡李佛)
* Ditangquan (地躺拳) - Ground-Prone Fist, Ground Tumbling Boxing
* Dragon Kung Fu (龍形拳)
* Eagle Claw (鷹爪翻子拳)
* Emeiquan (峨嵋拳, O Mei Ch'uan)
* Fanziquan (翻子拳) - Overturning Fist
* Five Ancestors (五祖拳)
* Fujian White Crane (白鶴拳)
* Gou Quan (狗拳) - Dog Fist
* Hsing Yi (形意拳, Xingyi quan) - Shape-Intent Fist
* Houquan (猴拳) - Monkey Fist
* Huaquan (華拳) - Hua Fist
* Hung Fut (洪佛) - Hung and Buddha style kung fu
* Hung Gar (洪家)
* Hu Quan (虎拳) - Tiger Fist
* Jow-Ga Kung Fu (周家) - Jow family style
* Lau Gar (刘家) - Lau family style
* Leopard (豹拳)
* Liu Seong Kuntao (also Liu Seong Gung Fu, Liu Seong Chuan Fa)
* Liu Shing Ch'uan (Luixinquan)
* Liuhe Bafa (六合八法 Liu He Pa Fa, Lok Hup Ba Fa)
* Long fist kung fu (Northern Shaolin Long Fist Kung Fu)
* Mei Hua Quan (梅花拳 Plum Blossom Fist)
* My Jong Law Horn (迷蹤羅漢拳)
* Nanquan(南拳)
* Northern Praying Mantis (北派螳螂拳)
* Pak Mei (White Eyebrow) (白眉拳) or Bak Mei
* Pa Kua Chang (八卦掌, Baguazhang)
* Paochui (炮捶) - Cannon Punch
* Piguaquan (劈掛拳) - Chop-Hitch Fist
* Shaolin Nam Pai Chuan(少林南派拳)
* Shaolin Quan (少林拳)
* Shuai Jiao (摔跤)
* Shequan (蛇拳) - Snake Fist
* Southern Praying Mantis (南派螳螂拳)
* Tai Chi Chuan (太極拳 T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Taijiquan) - Ultimate Supreme Fist
* Tantui (彈腿/譚腿)
* Tien Shan Pai(天山派)
* Tongbeiquan (通背拳) - Through-the-Back Fist
* Wing Chun (詠春拳)
* Wudangquan (武當拳)
* Xingyiquan (形意拳 Hsing-i Ch'uan)
* Yau Kung Mun
* Yingzhaoquan (鷹爪拳) - Eagle Claw Fist
* Yiquan (意拳 I Ch'uan)
* Zui Quan (醉酒拳) - Drunken Fist
[edit] Modern styles
* Do Pi Kung Fu
* Jing Quan Do
* Kuen-Do
* San shou (散手) or San Da
* San soo
[edit] Filipino martial arts (Philippines)
* Buno
* Cinco Teros
* Dumog
* Eskrima (Kali)
* Espada y Daga
* Jendo
* Kali Sikaran
* Kombatan
* Pananjakman
* Pangamut
* Sikaran
* Suntukan
* Yawyan
[edit] Indian martial arts
Further information: Dravidian martial arts
* Adithada
* Bothati
* But Marma Atti
* Gatka
* Inbuan Wrestling
* Kabaddi
* Kalarippayattu
* Kuttu Varisai
* Lathi
* Malla-yuddha
* Mallakrida
* Malyutham
* Marma Adi
* Mukna
* Niyuddha-kride
* Pehlwani
* Sarit Sarak
* Shastar Vidiya
* Silambam Nillaikalakki
* Varma Kalai
* Vajra Mushti / Vajra Mukti
[edit] Indonesia
* Kuntao
* Silat
* Sindo
[edit] Japanese martial arts (日本武芸)
* Aikido (合気道)
* Battojutsu (抜刀術)
* Bojutsu (棒術)
* Bujinkan (武神館)
* Daito-ryu aiki-jujutsu (大東流)
* Genbukan
* Goshin Jujitsu (護身柔術)
* Hakko Ryu (八光流)
* Iaido(居合道、居合術 Iaijutsu)
* Jinenkan
* Jojutsu (杖術)
* Judo (柔道)
* Jujutsu (柔術、Jiujitsu, Jujitsu)
* Kendo (剣道)
* Kenjutsu (剣術)
* Kenpo (拳法)
* Kenpo kai (拳法會)
* Kyokushin
* Kyudo (弓道)
* Naginata-do (薙刀道)
* Nakamura Ryu
* Nanbudo
* Ninjutsu (忍術 Ninpo 忍法)
* Nippon Kempo (拳法)
* Shindo Yoshin Ryu
* Shidokan
* Shinkendo
* Shintaido (新体道)
* Shintai Do (心体道)
* Shoot boxing (シュートボクシング)
* Shooto (修斗)
* Shorinji kempo (少林寺拳法)
* Shotokan
* Shukokai
* Sumo (相撲)
* Taido (躰道)
* Taiho-Jitsu
* Taijutsu (体術)
* Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu (天真正伝香取神道流)
* Toyama Ryu
* Yabusame (流鏑馬)
* Yagyu Shingan-ryu
[edit] Okinawa
* Goju-ryu
* Isshin-ryu
* Karate (空手)
* Okinawan kobudo
* Shorin-ryu
* Tegumi (手組)
[edit] Korean martial arts (한국무술/韓國武術)
* Gwon-gyokdo (권격도/拳擊道)
* Haidong Gumdo (해동검도/海東劍道)
* Han Mu Do (한무도/韓武道)
* Hankido (한기도)
* Hankumdo (한검도)
* Hapkido (합기도/合氣道)
* Hoi Jeon Moo Sool (회전무술)
* Hup Kwon Do
* Hwa Rang Do (화랑도/花郎道)
* Kuk Sool Won (국술원/國術院)
* Kumdo (검도/劍道 Gumdo)
* Kyuki Do
* Shippalgi (십팔기/十八技)
* Soo Bahk Do (수박도/手搏道)
* Ssireum (씨름) - Korean Sumo Wrestling
* Taekwondo (태권도/跆拳道)
* Taekyon (택견)
* Tang Soo Do (탕수도/唐手道)
* Tukong moosul (特攻武術)
* WonHwaDo (원화도/圓和道)
[edit] Laos
* Ling Lom
[edit] Malaysia
* Tomoi
[edit] Mongolia
* Mongolian wrestling
[edit] Sri Lanka
* Angampora
* China adi
[edit] Thailand
* Krabi Krabong
* Lerdrit
* Muay Boran
* Muay Thai
[edit] Tibet
* Boabom
* Kateda (claimed Tibetan origin)
[edit] Vietnamese martial arts (Võ Thuật Việt Nam)
* Cuong Nhu
* Tu-Thân
* Viet Vo Dao/ Việt Võ Đạo (越武道)
o Qwan Ki Do (Quan Khi Dao)
o Vovinam
* Vo Dao Vietnam
[edit] European martial arts
[edit] General
* Amateur wrestling
* Archery
* Boxing (Western)
* Catch wrestling
* European dueling sword
* Fencing
* Historical fencing
* Jousting
* Professional wrestling
[edit] Britain
* Bartitsu
* Boxing (London Prize Ring rules and Marquess of Queensberry rules)
* Cornish wrestling
* Defendu (Close Quarters Combat System, Gutter Fighting, Fairbairn System)
* Jieishudan (self defence)
* Lancashire wrestling
* Quarterstaff fighting
* Spirit Combat (British Aiki-Jutsu derivative)
* Zhuan Shu Kuan (combination of Chinese, Korean, and Thai arts)
[edit] Denmark
* Dai Ki Haku
[edit] Finland
* Hanmoodo
* Kas-pin
[edit] France
* Bâton français
* Gouren
* La canne
* Lutta corsa
* Savate
[edit] Germany
* German Ju-Jutsu
* German school of swordsmanship
* Kampfringen
[edit] Greece
* Pankration (all force)
[edit] Ireland
* Bata
* Bare-knuckle boxing
[edit] Italy
* Caestus
* Greco-Roman wrestling
* Italian school of swordsmanship
* Liu-bo
[edit] Norway
* Stav
[edit] Poland
* Combat 56
* Uhlan fighting
* modern jiu-jitsu
* kempo tai jutsu
* sar dah
* Militarie Ars Poloniae
* Signum Polonicum
* Karate Tsunami
[edit] Portugal
* Jogo do Pau
[edit] Russia
* Buza
* ROSS
* Russian All-Round Fighting (RAF)
* Sambo (Sombo, Cambo, Combo)
* Spetsnaz GRU hand-to-hand combat style (Popov's System)
* Systema
[edit] Scotland
* Dirk Dance (Scottish knife dance)
* Scottish Backhold
[edit] Serbia
* Real Aikido
* Svebor
* Svibor (Society of Serbian Knightly Fighting)
[edit] Spain
* Juego del Palo
* Zipota
[edit] Sweden
* Glima (Viking wrestling)
[edit] Switzerland
* Schwingen
[edit] Middle Eastern Martial Arts
[edit] Egypt
* Egyptian stick fencing
[edit] Iran
* Koshti
[edit] Israel
* Abir
* Commando Krav Maga
* Kapap
* Krav Maga
[edit] Turkey
* Sayokan
* Yağlı güreş (also known as oil wrestling)
[edit] Uzbekistan
* Kurash
[edit] North American and Caribbean martial arts
[edit] Haiti
* Kalenda
[edit] USA
* American Karate System
* American Kenpo
* Collegiate wrestling
* Defendo (Combato, Underwood Systems)
* Danzan Ryu
* Hoshin Roshi Ryu
* Hurricane Combat Arts
* Inoue grappling
* Hybrid (or Mixed) martial arts
* Jailhouse rock (a.k.a. 52 Hand Blocks, Jailhouse Shuffle)
* Jeet Kune Do "Way of the Intercepting Fist" (Jeet Kuen Do, JKD, Jun Fan Gung Fu)
* Kajukenbo
* kickboxing
* Kokondo
* Limalama
* Marine Corps LINE Combat System
* Marine Corps Martial Arts Program
* Model Mugging (feminist self-defense, also known as "Impact")
* Native American fighting styles (includes scalping, tomahawk throwing, etc.)
* Neko-ryu
* Progressive Fighting System
* Red Warrior or Tushka-homa
* S.C.A.R.S.
* Shen Lung Kung Fu (神龍 功夫) - American (Chinese based) 5 Animal Style
* Shingitai Jujitsu
* Shootfighting
* Shoot wrestling
* To-Shin Do
* Tora Dojo
* Wen-Do (Women's Self-Defence)
* World War II combatives
[edit] Oceanian martial arts
[edit] Hawaii
* Kapu Kuialua
[edit] New Zealand
* Mau rakau
[edit] South American martial arts
[edit] Bolivia
* Tinku
[edit] Brazil
* Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
* Capoeira
* Kombato
* Luta Livre
* Maculele
* Taiyando
* Vale tudo
[edit] Peru
* Vacón
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
[edit] See also
* List of fictional martial arts
* List of martial arts-related topics
Introduction
There is often controversy about whether or not the practice of martial arts leads to positive or negative psychological changes in the participants. There are many who claim that practicing the martial arts develops beneficial psychological changes and encourages good moral and ethical development. Some martial arts, such as judo, were developed with this goal in mind. In contrast, some claim that participating in socially sanctioned, combative activities facilitates violence and aggression. Most images of the martial arts in popular movies and television shows probably help spread this second claim. Certainly the popularity of pay-for-view, no-holds-barred, martial arts tournaments gives the general public a one-sided view of the martial arts and a cause to rally around for legislative regulation related to these arts. The changes in Asian martial arts through history could support either view. While the Asian martial arts grew out of an environment where one killed or was killed, in more recent, peaceful times the goals of many martial arts have changed to address more diverse goals such as personal growth and self-discipline.
If martial artists are concerned with becoming better people and reducing violence in themselves and in society, it is important to know which of these claims is true. They should also be prepared to defend their ability to practice the martial arts against social pressures and legislative bans or limitations. While there is substantial anecdotal evidence to support the positive and negative aspects of practicing the martial arts, it is important to assess whether scientific research substantiates one claim or the other. A primary goal of this paper is to summarize the empirical evidence in this area of research. Several other important questions that will be addressed include: a) Are the psychosocial changes gained from participation in the martial arts different from those gained from other activities? b) What specific aspects of martial arts training affect psychosocial changes? c) If martial arts practice is psychologically beneficial, is it an effective means for psychological treatment?
Are the Martial Arts Beneficial for Us?
It is likely that there are both short-term and long-term psychosocial changes from practicing a martial art. There are only a few studies assessing the short-term effects of martial arts practice. In one study, a single session of jogging or weight lifting led to reduced tension, anxiety, depression, and anger-hostility in subjects immediately after exercise. However, a single session of karate led to no changes in these measurements. It was noted that the activity level of the karate students in the study was less than that of the other groups (McGowan et al., 1991). This suggests a minimum level of activity is necessary for these changes to occur. In contrast, a single session of taijiquan helped reduce stress levels immediately after a stressful experience (Jin, 1989; 1992). Much more research in this area is required before any conclusions can be drawn about the short-term effects of martial arts training.
In contrast to the lack of research on the short-term effects of martial arts training, there is a growing body of literature about the longer-term effects of martial arts practice. The findings of most of these studies show that the practice of martial arts leads to positive psychosocial changes in the participants. Many studies on this subject are cross-sectional in design1 looking at martial artists with different belt rank or time of participation. These studies used a variety of methodologies to examine students of jujitsu (Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Daniels and Thornton, 1990; 1992), karate (Kroll and Carlson, 1967; Reiter, 1975; Duthie et al., 1978; Nosanchuk, 1981; Konzak and Bourdeau, 1984; Richman and Rehberg, 1986; Layton, 1988, 1990; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Daniels and Thornton, 1990; 1992; Foster, 1997; Guthrie, 1995; 1997) and tae kwon do (Duthie et al., 1978; Rothpearl, 1980; Nosanchuk, 1981; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Skelton et al., 1991; Kurian et al., 1993; 1994). In general, there is an inverse relationship between belt rank or length of time practicing a martial art and anxiety (Reiter, 1975; Layton, 1990; Kurian et al., 1993), aggression, hostility (Rothpearl, 1980; Nosanchuk, 1981; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Skelton et al., 1991; Daniels and Thornton, 1990; 1992), and neuroticism (Layton, 1988). There is a positive correlation between length of time practicing or belt rank and self-confidence (Duthie et al., 1978; Konzak and Bourdeau, 1984), independence, self-reliance (Konzak and Bourdeau, 1984; Kurian et al., 1994), and self-esteem (Richman and Rehberg, 1986).
While these results are encouraging to those who practice the martial arts, most of these cross-sectional studies do not control for self-selection and attrition over time. The positive traits seen in higher ranked and more experienced groups could be due to the students who had negative traits dropping out of the activity. Also, there were no control groups in these studies making it difficult to infer causality. One cross-sectional study by Nosanchuk and MacNeil (1989) controlled for self-selection and attrition by studying both current and former students of karate, tae kwon do or jujitsu. They found an inverse relationship between rank and aggression in students studying in "traditional" settings. Former students also had these lower measures of aggression. This suggests a decrease in aggression can be attributed to training, not attrition.
A number of longitudinal studies looking at students of hapkido (Spear, 1989), judo (Pyecha, 1970), jujitsu (Daniels and Thornton, 1992), karate (Daniels and Thornton, 1992; Foster, 1997), tae kwon do (Finkenberg, 1990), and taijiquan (Brown et al., 1995) support the findings of the cross-sectional studies summarized above. Martial arts practice cultivates decreases in hostility (Daniels and Thornton, 1992), anger (Brown et al., 1995), and feeling vulnerable to attack (Madden, 1990; 1995). They also lead to more easygoing and warmhearted individuals (Pyecha, 1970) and increases in self-confidence (Spear, 1989), self-esteem (Finkenberg, 1990; Brown et al., 1995), and self-control (Brown et al., 1995). The style of martial art may be relevant. In a study by Foster (1997), karate students, but not aikido students, showed a decrease in trait-anxiety. This study will have to be replicated because subjects were not randomly assigned. Nevertheless, it suggests that certain martial arts might lead to changes more quickly than others. If this is true, one hypothesis is that the more complex movements and foreign concepts involved in some martial arts produce changes more slowly.
It should be pointed out that some studies find no effects of martial arts training. In a cross-sectional study, Kroll and Carlson (1967) found no correlation between length of time studying karate and personality traits. This is in contrast to the large number of cross-sectional studies carried out subsequently. In a longitudinal study, children who trained in aikido for 2 ½ weeks showed no changes in self-control as reported by their teachers (Delva-Tauilili, 1995). It will be interesting to see this study repeated over a longer period of time and with better controls to see if aikido training yields measurable changes.
Are the Benefits from Martial Arts Practice Different From Other Activities?
Asian martial arts have much in common with other physical activities (such as exercise and Western sports) including: physical activity, physical fitness, skills acquisition, and social activity. However, there are also points where they differ. Many Western sports tend to emphasize competition and winning while Asian martial arts have traditionally emphasized self-knowledge, self-improvement, and self-control. Unlike Western sports, Asian martial arts usually: teach self-defense, involve philosophical and ethical teachings to be applied to life, have a high degree of ceremony and ritual, emphasize the integration of mind and body, and have a meditative component. While exercise and physical fitness has a role in producing psychological benefits (Husman, 1955; Nouri and Beer, 1989; Leith and Taylor, 1990; McGowan et al., 1991), it is likely that the non-physical aspects of the martial arts have a unique influence on the long-term, psychosocial changes seen in participants.
A number of longitudinal studies support the hypothesis that the benefits from martial arts training are different from other activities. Judo training led to more easygoing, warmhearted, and participating individuals than did a variety of Western sports (Pyecha, 1970). Judo also led to lower rates of violence in youths than did two sports programs (Paul, 1979). Taijiquan training, but not control activities, led to positive changes in overall life-satisfaction (Kutner et al., 1997), reduced the incidence of nightmares (Slater and Hunt, 1997), and led to greater decreases in anger and mood distrubances (Brown et al., 1995). Hapkido training for military trainees was more effective at improving individual self-confidence and group morale than other forms of training including fitness training, resistance training, and obstacle course training (Spear, 1989). When assessed one year after they finished a one semester class, martial arts students showed an increase in their scores for feelings of self-control and lower scores for feelings of vulnerability and likelihood of attack. Physical fitness students showed no changes in these measures (Madden, 1995). One semester of tae kwon do increased self-esteem which was not observed in the control subjects (Finkenberg, 1990). A limitation of the last two studies is that the subjects were not randomly assigned. In a cross-sectional study, Daniels and Thornton (1992) found that martial artists had a larger decrease in hostility with time than participants in badminton or rugby.
While these studies show differences between martial arts and other activities, not all psychosocial changes seem to be unique to the martial arts. Taijiquan practice, as well as a number of other physical activities, led to expanded social interactions by subjects with physical disabilities (Blinde and McClung, 1997). Both taijiquan and moderate intensity walking led to increases in self-esteem (Brown et al., 1995). Taijiquan, as well as a number of other activities, decreased levels of stress after a stressful experience (Jin,1992) and both martial arts training and weight training led to increases in general mental health (Egan, 1993).
It is likely that some of the psychosocial benefits from martial arts practice originate from the physical activity since exercise in many forms can promote psychological well-being (Leith and Taylor, 1990; Simono, 1991; Weiser et al., 1995). Nonetheless, research directly comparing the practice of martial arts with other physical activities suggests that martial arts training produces positive psychosocial changes that are greater in magnitude and diversity than those produced by many other physical activities. These changes may have different etiology and it is likely that other, non-exercise-related, aspects of martial arts training are important.
How do the Martial Arts Lead to these Changes?
In order to apply these results to one's own practice, it is important to understand how martial arts training might lead to these positive changes. It is also important to know if these changes occur with all styles of martial arts and all styles of instruction. It can be argued that what we get out of the martial arts is what we bring into the practice. Nonetheless, there is also the possibility that martial arts training makes us grow beyond what we bring. Some studies have tried to demonstrate the importance of class content on the changes observed in subjects.
Nosanchuk and MacNeil (1989) examined the aggressive tendencies of participants at 7 schools offering karate, tae kwon do, or jujitsu. At each school, they evaluated the relative importance of meditation in the class, the amount of respect the students showed towards the sensei, the dojo, and each other, the level of contact allowed to vital areas of the body, and the relative importance of kata. Based on this evaluation, they classified 4 of the schools as "traditional" (more meditation, respect and kata, less contact to vital areas) and 3 of them as "modern". To control for self-selection and attrition skewing the results, the authors also evaluated students who had quit these schools and students who had moved from one school to another. Beginning students in both traditional and modern schools had similar scores. More advanced students in the traditional schools showed lower scores for aggression than beginning students. There was no change in the scores of the students at the schools with the "modern" emphasis. Both Trulson (1986) and Regets (1990) obtained similar results. In contrast, Egan (1993) found that both traditional and modern styles of training led to improvements in general mental health. However, the traditional martial arts students showed significant increases in scores for self-acceptance which were not reported for the students with a modern emphasis in training. Most research supports the hypothesis that it is the training environment and style of instruction influencing these differences.
One study, however, showed that college boxers, who probably had none of these attributes in their training, became less aggressive with training (Husman, 1955). This suggests other factor(s) may also influence reductions in aggression. One possibility is that the sensei or coach acts as a role-model and "leads by example". Regets (1990) reported a positive correlation between an instructor's aggressiveness and his/her student's aggressiveness. Conversely, a negative correlation between an instructor's traditional characteristics and his/her student's aggressiveness was observed. One interpretation of this is that the instructor influences the student's behavior through modeling. This is similar to the sentiments expressed by Musashi: "the teacher is as a needle, the disciple is as thread".2
At this time, it would be premature to rule out the other components of traditional training environments since it is likely that more traditional instructors would self-select into traditional environments and less traditional instructors into less traditional environments. These findings suggest that martial arts should be much more than just kicks, punches, and throws. The training environment or the instructor or both influences whether or not positive psychosocial changes occur in martial artists. Therefore, it is impossible to assume that martial arts training will foster positive psychosocial changes because there are many differences between martial arts classes and instructors with respect to their emphasis on physical, mental, and spiritual components found within the Asian martial arts.
Are the Martial Arts Effective as a Means of Psychological Treatment?
Recreational and fitness activities have been shown to be helpful for various special needs populations (Van Andel and Austin, 1984; Maisto and Stephens, 1991). Since martial arts practice can have beneficial outcomes, a number of people are looking to the martial arts as a means to treat psychological problems. For instance, Guthrie (1997) found that women recovering from psycho-sexual abuse, eating disorders, substance abuse and growing up in dysfunctional families reported that karate training was helpful in their recovery. In a case study, Weiser et al. (1995) claim that Shotokan Karate helped a client achieve quicker results in verbal therapy.
One of the most cited studies in this area was conducted by Trulson (1986). Adolescents identified as juvenile delinquents were assigned to one of three groups. The first group received traditional tae kwon do training (involving meditation, warm-up exercises, brief lecture about tae kwon do, and the physical techniques of tae kwon do); the second group received modern tae kwon do training (only the physical techniques were taught); and the third received a program of increased physical activity not involving the martial arts. All groups were taught by the same instructor for the same amount of time and in the same room. At the end of six months, the students in the traditional tae kwon do group showed a decrease in aggressiveness and anxiety and an increase in self-esteem. In contrast, the modern tae kwon do group showed an increased tendency towards delinquency and an increase in aggressiveness. Students in the exercise group showed an increase in self-esteem, but no other significant changes.
Several groups have used other martial arts as a means of psychological treatment. Judo training, but not the control activities, led to an increase in the social adjustment scores for developmentally disabled subjects (Davis and Byrd, 1975) and modified judo training increased the psychosocial skills for blind, developmentally disabled children (Gleser et al., 1992). Aikido training for adolescents with behavioral problems led to larger increases in self-esteem than traditional treatment (Madenlian, 1979). Both judo (Greene, 1987) and karate (Gorbel, 1990) have been useful in reducing dysfunctional behaviors in male, behaviorally disordered adolescents. Judo has also been found to be a useful adjunct to community programs for the treatment of pre-delinquent children (Fleisher et al., 1995). Aikido has been successfully used as an intervention strategy for middle and high school students with severe emotional disturbances (Edelman, 1994) and other research indicates that martial arts may help reduce behavioral problems in children (Gonzalez, 1989).
While these reports indicate a wide range of therapeutic applications for the martial arts, not all problems can be treated with the martial arts; aerobic exercise, but not aikido was found to be effective at reducing Type A patterns characterized by: hyper-alert, aggressive, explosive speech mannerisms, and hostile emotions (Jasnoski et al., 1987).
Perhaps the positive results should not come as a surprise. There appear to be a number of parallels between psychotherapy and the martial arts (Suler, 1993) including the concepts of energy (ki or chi), distance, timing, and positioning (Seitz et al., 1990). In addition, blending, centering and pre-empting (Saposnek, 1980) have a practical usage in mental health therapy. The concept of giving way (ju) to use the strength of your opponent is similar to concepts found in the writings of Erikson and others regarding methods of therapy (Gleser and Brown, 1988). One of the central goals of both psychotherapy and many martial arts is knowing oneself and the world around us. As Master Sun says, "know the enemy and know yourself; in a hundred battles you will never be in peril".3 These battles can be waged both inside and outside of ourselves.
Summary
Empirical evidence supports anecdotal reports about the positive psychosocial consequences of martial arts practice. Numerous investigations into this topic over three decades show that the practice of martial arts promotes positive psychosocial changes. Only three studies report no changes promoted by martial arts training. One of these studies links this lack of change to training that emphasizes the physical techniques of the arts without the ethical, moral, spiritual, or meditative components included. Three reports make a similar conclusion about martial arts students who develop negative traits. It is not entirely clear how the martial arts lead to positive psychosocial changes. The role of exercise and physical fitness from the martial arts on these changes has not been explored. Only one study reports the physical fitness benefits of martial arts training compared to other training regimes (Spear, 1989) and none of the studies measure activity levels during training. Nonetheless, it is likely that inclusion of the non-physical aspects of the martial arts during training or the instructor acting as a positive role model or both play a role in promoting long-term changes. A goal for future research will be to design experiments to determine which specific aspects of the martial arts affect these positive changes. Despite the unanswered questions about how these changes occur, the martial arts are finding a niche in the treatment of psychological disorders and will likely prove to be a useful complement to verbal therapy. It is gratifying to know that research is beginning to support the claims of the old masters: the martial arts can help develop both better bodies and better minds and may lead to a better, more peaceful society.
Footnotes
1) Cross Sectional studies examine subjects at one point in time while longitudinal studies assess subjects at multiple points in time. Longitudinal studies are more reliable for making correlations between an activity and changes in the subjects.
2) Musashi Miyamoto. (1974) A Book of Five Rings. Victor Harris, trans. The Overlook Press: Woodstock, N.Y. p. 41.
3) Sun Tzu. (1963) The Art of War. Samuel B. Griffith, trans. Oxford University Press: Oxford. p. 84
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Acknowledgments
The author thanks the following martial artists/social workers: B. Bickford, M.S.S.W., D. Coleman, M.S.S.W. and K. Coleman, M.S.S.W. for their helpful critique of this manuscript.
The Physical and Psychological Benefits of Martial Arts Training
by Adam Paul Swiercz
Introduction
While the specific origin of martial arts remains elusive to historians, it is apparent that they have been around for a very long time. Over the years, fighting styles have been passed on from generation to generation, and from country to country. This adaptive radiation allowed the arts to emigrate from China into Japan and Korea, giving us the eclectic variety of styles we have today. Developed to improve self-defense and combative success, martial arts were created in the ancient cultures of Asia. In general, martial arts involve fighting techniques, mental discipline, physical exercise, and various philosophical components. Most of them embody intellectual concepts as well. The Taoist philosophy of balance, Buddhist meditation and breathing, and Confucian ethics have all greatly influenced martial arts. Our society has become increasingly interested in these martial arts over the last fifty years. We are finally beginning to realize all the wonderful benefits that martial arts have to offer.
My interest in martial arts stems from my childhood obsession with ninjas and Kung Fu movies. The media capitalized on the "mystical" and superhuman qualities depicted in the legends of the martial arts. Just like many of the boys my age, I wanted to grow up to be a ninja. It didn't take long to figure out that becoming a ninja was not a practical career choice. Either way, I still wanted to see exactly what martial arts were all about. I started taking Hapkido, a Korean fighting style, at ten years old and was able to get my brown belt just before my family moved. In high school I took Tang Su Do for two years, stopping when I got my first knee surgery. After my third, and hopefully final, knee surgery, I started training in Bando with the Montgomery County S.W.A.T. Team. Bando is a Burmese fighting style made popular in the United States by a man named Dr. U Maung Gyi. This was quite an experience and only fueled my thirst for knowledge about the arts. During my first semester at the George Washington University, I took advantage of the opportunity to take a class devoted to studying the history of Asian martial arts.
As an N.S.P.A. certified personal trainer, and a pre-medical biology major, my interest in the human body is also something that I devote a lot of time to. I am fascinated with how the body works. While my future career will require me to use American medical procedures, I am interested in what the East has to offer. Writing this paper presents me with an opportunity to combine two of my favorite things; martial arts and the human body. My goal is to analyze the positive effects of martial arts training. In this paper, I will discuss the basic elements of various fighting styles. While doing this, I will show that properly practiced martial arts can bring about a number of beneficial physical and psychological effects. This will give people yet another reason to start some kind of training. I am a firm believer that martial arts are for everyone, regardless of race, sex, age, or religious beliefs.
Many of the physical benefits of training resemble those achieved by any other form of exercise. A normal training session of taekwondo or Hapkido involves a period of warming up, stretching, then training. The exercise one gets from martial arts training improves balance, flexibility, stamina, and posture. Weight loss is promoted through extended cardiovascular activity. These are all results of long term martial arts training and can, for the most part, be achieved by doing any type of sport or exercise regimen for an extended period of time. These physical changes are easily noticed and often sought after so much that the more subtle health benefits are overlooked.
Qigong and Hypertension
Qigong, the ancient Chinese practice of harnessing Qi (vital energy), is receiving a lot of attention as a major part of traditional Chinese medicine. Medical Qigong has been practiced for centuries to promote health, healing, self-defense, longevity, and spiritual development. One of the goals of practitioners is to master tension and relaxation. Chinese doctors prescribe certain forms of Qigong to patients, depending on their diagnosis. According to them, many illnesses are cause by a disrupted flow of energy through the meridians. Meridians are channels that allow energy to flow through the body. The Qigong techniques provide a balance of energy in the patient's body in an effort to return them to good health. Chinese medicine attributes great importance to the homeostasis of energy in the body.
According to Lee and Lei, Qigong consists of three different methods. These methods are movement-oriented Qigong, meditation-oriented Qigong, and breathoriented Qigong. Abdominal breathing is a vital part of Qigong. This deep breathing allows for more oxygen intake per breath. In Qigong as well as yoga, deep breathing also serves as a hypnotic tool. By focusing on the breathe, one can truly relax and pay full attention to the body. During these semi- meditative states, metabolic, autonomic, endocrine, neurological, and psychological changes can be noted (Shin, 2).
In America, doctors tend to prescribe drugs for hypertension. Hypertension is another word for high blood pressure, and is a very common problem in our society. Essential hypertension is one form of high blood pressure that has no detectable cause (Lee, 1), and is treated as soon as possible to prevent cardiovascular disease. The use of antihypertensive drugs does have side effects, suggesting that an alternative form of prevention may be better in the long run. Due to the side effects of antihypertensive drugs, there is a growing interest in non-pharmaceutical procedures to treat and prevent hypertension.
The American Journal of Chinese Medicine published a study on the effects that Qigong has on blood pressure in mildly hypertensive subjects. The primary goal of the study was to prove that ten weeks of Qigong practice could lower one's blood pressure. The other goals included identifying the underlying mechanism responsible for lowering the blood pressure, and to examine the ventilatory functions indirectly related to blood pressure. Blood pressure, ventilatory function, urinary catecholamine levels, forced respiratory volume per second, and the forced vital capacity were measured in all the patients before and after the training period.
After ten weeks of Qigong training, blood pressure decreased in those practicing Qigong, and did not decrease in the control group. Many hypertensive patients have proclaimed that receiving Qi auspiciously affects heart rate, blood pressure, cholesterol, and other important bodily functions that determine one's health.
A decreased level of urinary catecholamines is indicative of a lower level of sympathetic nervous system activity. Catecholamines play important physiological roles as hormones and neurotransmitters such as epinephrine and dopamine. Blood pressure is directly related to sympathetic neurological activity. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "fight or flight" response we ha ve when faced with a stressful situation. Therefore, Qigong is thought to lower blood pressure by affecting sympathetic nervous system activity.
As for the ventilatory function, patients experienced an average increase of 20% for oxygen uptake. These increases in expiratory capacity show that Qigong can be an extremely beneficial martial art for those looking to improve their health. This study shows that through relaxation and stabilization of sympathetic nervous system activity, Qigong can help treat and protect against mild essential hypertension. Along with lower sympathetic nervous system activity comes a lower level of overall stress. With a lower level of stress comes a lower level of Cortisol. Cortisol is a hormone that regulates our metabolism of carbohydrates. High levels of Cortisol are known to cause weight gain, persistent fatigue, raise blood sugar levels, and more. The study did not take this into account, but regulation of Cortisol levels by reduction of stress is yet another benefit of Qigong training.
Taekwondo and Anaerobic Power
Taekwondo is a Korean martial art that focuses greatly on kicking. It is practiced in over 140 countries and studied by over a million people of all ages every day (Melhim, 2). Due to its reputation as a self-defense system as opposed to a fitness program, few studies have been done to investigate all the finely tuned benefits of this training. Dr. A. F. Melhim published a study in The British Journal of Sports Medicine that investigates the acute cardiorespiratory responses to taekwondo training. The goal of this study was to learn more about the aerobic and anaerobic power associated with taekwondo.
In this study, nineteen male adolescents who were already practicing taekwondo were selected to participate. They had all practiced for approximately one year, had similar technical skill, and trained for at least one hour three times a week. These participants were all placed in an intermediate taekwondo class. The students took maximal aerobic power exercise tests on a cycle ergometer. Their heart rate and oxygen uptake were measured continuously during the test. During training, the subjects performed various sequences of movements including blocks, punches kicks, and twisting, leaping, and jumping techniques. They performed these sequences fifteen times a day, three days a week, for eight weeks.
After the training period, the participants were tested for maximum aerobic and anaerobic power. The results show that the training had no significant effect on the volume of oxygen uptake, or resting heart rate. On the other hand, significant improvements were seen in the anaerobic power and capacity of the young men. This suggests that taekwondo may be an efficient form of anaerobic training for adolescent males. The lack of cardiovascular gains can be attributed to the fact that the students' heart rates were not raised to high enough levels and sustained for the necessary amount of time. Further investigations are needed to confirm these results, but it is accepted that taekwondo can be used to improve and maintain anaerobic power in adolescent males (Melhim, 8).
Tai Chi and Taekwondo and the Elderly
The ancient art of Tai Chi has been used to promote health in China for hundreds of years. This graceful art uses slow, circular movements to exercise the body, mind, and consciousness. In China, Tai Chi is regarded as one of the best overall forms of exercise. Twenty years ago, America started to catch on and has been investigating the benefits of Tai Chi since 1980. This martial art is especially popular with the elderly population because it is generally slower than other forms of exercise and can be practiced without too much physical exertion. The low velocity, low impact movements can be performed by older individuals experiencing joint degeneration, muscle atrophy, poor balance, and low stamina.
Li Hong and K. M. Chan reviewed thirty-one studies published in American and Chinese Journals. Their goal was to assess the overall effects of Tai Chi on metabolism and cardiorespiratory response, mental control, prevention of falls in the elderly and immune capacity. The measures taken in these studies include metabolic rate, heart rate, ventilation, maximal oxygen uptake, blood pressure, immune capacity, and number of falls.
The results of Hong's and Chan's review show that Tai Chi can be classified as moderate exercise, because it does not demand more than 55% of maximal oxygen uptake. After comparing the results of thirty-one studies, Hong and Chan determined that "Tai Chi exercise is beneficial to cardiorespiratory function, immune capacity, mental control, flexibility, and balance control." (Hong, 2) It also helps to improve muscle strength, leading to a reduced risk of falls in the elderly.
As stated earlier, practicing martial arts can increase strength, balance, coordination, and flexibility. Inevitably, these physical properties dissipate with age. With decreasing physical ability, the elderly are susceptible to extreme injury and death due to falling. Falls are reported to be a leading cause of accidental death of the elderly (Brudnak, 1). Recently, a study was conducted to test the effects of taekwondo training on senior citizens. While many studies have tested and proven the benefits of Tai Chi and other soft martial arts, this is the first to investigate the results of the elderly training in a hard martial art.
Proven benefits of Tai Chi training for the elderly include: increased strength, endurance, flexibility, balance, and prevention of osteoporosis. Improvement in any of these areas leads to a decreased risk of harmful falls. The Mark Brudnak study was designed to see if taekwondo can bring about similar results. The study began with twenty-seven senior citizens. After a preliminary screening for any neural or muscular disorders, twelve were approved to begin training. The remaining participants were tested for trunk flexibility, one- leg balance, and the number of pushups they could do. After seventeen weeks of instruction, the group was tested again to see what improvements they made. Trunk flexibility increased by an average of 3.5 inches. The average time participants were able to balance on one leg increased by an average of sixteen seconds for either leg. Interestingly enough, the group's number of pushups increased by an average of 1.8, but pushups were never done during the training program. This proves that practitioners of taekwondo experience overall strength gains that reach beyond the specific exercises that are practiced. This trait gives taekwondo an advantage when it comes to fall prevention. These results show that both hard and soft martial arts can be practiced be the elderly to increase balance, flexibility, strength and in turn lower the risk of dangerous falls.
While it is apparent that martial arts are good for health, it turns out they can also strengthen your immune system. Michael Irwin is a professor at the U.C.L.A. Neuropsychiatric Institute who decided to put this theory to a test. He conducted a study to see if a regular Tai Chi program could help prevent the re-emergence of chickenpox. Caused by the varicella zoster virus, chickenpox is an unpleasant rash that most children encounter during their early years. For the most part, children recover from chickenpox without any major complications. This virus, however, does not completely go away but remains dormant in nervous tissue. With age comes a weakened immune system. Therefore, as one gets older, the virus is more likely to come back. Whe n chickenpox does come back, it is called shingles. Shingles is a long- lasting, painful rash caused by the re-emergence of the varicella zoster virus.
Michael Irwin had eighteen elderly people practice Tai Chi for fifteen weeks. After the fifteen weeks, he tested the group's immune response to shingles. Irwin compared the levels of response to a group that did not practice Tai Chi. The elderly individuals that took part in the Tai Chi program showed an average 50% increase of immunity to shingles. Also, for reasons unknown, the subjects that had physical disabilities showed the greatest improvements (Whitney, 2).
Dr. Peter Douris, of the New York Institute of Technology, published his study in the British Journal of Sports Medicine. Douris tested the overall fitness of a group of eighteen people between the ages of forty and sixty. Nine of these people lived relatively sedentary lifestyles, with no frequent exercise training of physical activity. The other half of the group had been practicing soo bahk do for approximately three years. Soo bak do is a Korean martial art comparable to taekwondo.
On average, those who practiced martial arts had 12% less body fat than those who had no training. The practitioners also averaged 66 sit-ups while the sedentary group averaged 37. The soo bahk do group also showed greater flexibility and twice the balancing power of the inactive group. According to Dr. Douris, martial arts are a safe and effective way to protect against disease and reduce the negative effects of aging (Aging, 2).
Psychological Benefits of Martial Arts Training
While there is a decent amount of empirical data on the physical benefits of martial arts training, the psychological and social effects are more obscure. The effects of long-term martial arts training are still being investigated, and there have been a number of interesting studies. Most of the studies that have been conducted are similar in showing that martial art training generally causes positive psychological and social adjustments.
One of the most psychologically beneficial aspects of martial arts training is the increase in self-confidence. Many Americans live in fear of being attacked. We have all been in situations where our self- confidence has been questioned. Many people feel this insecurity walking down the street at night, or facing a bully at school. Beating everyone up is obviously not a reasonable solution. Learning self-defense increases the selfconfidence of practitioners by taking away their feeling of vulnerability. The goal is not to teach people to fight those who argue or disagree, but to teach them to defend themselves when necessary. Confidence allows you to remain calm during difficult situations. By remaining calm, one can assess the situation more clearly and act appropriately. When faced with a compromising situation, those capable of defending themselves should need to use physical force less often than those who cannot defend themselves.
Most studies on the long-term effects of martial arts training agree that martial arts are affective in producing positive social and psychological changes. There is usually an inverse relationship between the amount of time someone has been practicing, and the level of their aggression, hostility, and anxiety. The opposite can be said about the independence, self-reliance, and self-confidence of practitioners, which tends to increase with the period of time they have been training. Some martial arts lead to psychological benefits more quickly than others. For instance, one study showed that over a short period of time, karate students experienced a decrease in anxiety, but aikido students did not (Binder, 2). This suggests that if the martial art is more foreign and complex, it may take longer to reap the psychological benefits of it.
The differences between martial arts and regular sports may be responsible for their ability to significantly improve social and psychological health. Common American sports have many similarities with martial arts training. These include physical fitness, coordination development, and social interaction. The Eastern arts, however, differ in their focus on the overall development of the practitioner. While martial arts tend to strive toward self-control and self-knowledge, many Western sports focus solely on competition between individuals and groups. This emphasis on winning is present in the competitive aspect of martial arts considering the kill or be killed environment in which martial arts were developed. Over the last thirty years, martial arts have become increasingly popular as competitive sports, hence the addition of judo and taekwondo in the Olympics. The difference between martial arts and western sports is that the arts generally have a large amount of ritual and philosophical components. Martial arts also tend to focus on mind/body integration through a combination of meditation and physical activity. While regular exercise has proven to have a positive psychological influence, research that directly compares martial arts with regular exercise shows greater and more diverse psychological benefits through martial arts training. Judo has proven to lead to more easy going attitudes and decreased rates of violence in adolescents. Tai Chi has proven to decrease anger, insomnia, and nightmares, while increasing the practitioner's positive outlook on life. Military Hapkido training has proven to strengthen group moral and self-confidence more than regular weight- lifting or obstacle course training (Binder, 4).
Thirty years of research on this topic supports the anecdotal reports that martial arts are good for the mind as well as the body. Most studies arrive at the same conclusions. The main goal of many current studies is to reveal exactly how this process works. It is assumed that the non-physical aspects of martial arts contribute to the long-term benefits. The use of martial arts for their therapeutic properties is also being thoroughly investigated, and will hopefully prove to be very productive in the near future. Many psychologists are willing to admit that under proper supervision, martial arts can be a very helpful form of psychotherapy.
Conclusion
Martial arts have been able to stand up to all the scientific tests. They are obviously physically and mentally beneficial. Different martial arts bring about different effects. If someone wants to battle stress and anxiety, most forms of martial arts will suffice. For the elderly and those that are physically limited, Tai Chi and Qigong are wonderful forms of exercise. For adolescents, taekwondo and Hapkido can work wonders. The martial arts, however, are by no means age specific. Taekwondo has also been shown to greatly help elderly people and prevent them from taking harmful falls. Whatever martial art one chooses to practice will undoubtedly affect him/her in a positive way.
Asian martial arts pick up where Western sports are lacking. They promote a healthy way of life as well as physical development. This combination allows martial arts to work wonders for many people. If the drug companies weren't so powerful in America, maybe the health benefits of martial arts would be more readily accepted. Here, we tend to prescribe drugs for whatever ails us. Martial arts are obviously not some magical remedy for all of our illnesses, but there is definitely something to them that we don't understand yet. It is amazing to think that the Chinese have been using martial arts for thousands of years, and we are just now starting to figure out what they involve.
Overall, studies have verified that properly practiced marital arts can bring about positive physical and psychological changes. Very few will disagree with this fact. However, there is much to be learned about how these changes are produced. The Asian martial arts have turned out to be more than just tools for self-defense. They have developed into systems that not only protect the practitioner from attackers, but also from poor physical and psychological health.
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